Artificial Intelligence. Artificial intelligence (AI) would be the possession of intelligence, or the exercise of thought, by machines such as computers. I love your article and hate AI hype greatly. However, I can find only two flaws: 1) The Turing Test is useless. All it tests for is how easy it is to fool humans; it. Search the history of over 298 billion web pages on the Internet. James Adair (c.1709-1783) History of the Indians (London: Edward & Charles Dilly, 1775). Latest breaking news, including politics, crime and celebrity. Find stories, updates and expert opinion. UpdateStar is compatible with Windows platforms. UpdateStar has been tested to meet all of the technical requirements to be compatible with Windows 10, 8.1, Windows 8. ![]() Food Timeline: history notes- meat. Alan. Turing. net What is AI? Part 4. By Jack Copeland. Copeland, May 2. 00. Early AI Programs. The first working AI programs were written in the UK by Christopher Strachey, Dietrich Prinz, and Anthony Oettinger. Strachey was at the time a teacher at Harrow School and an amateur programmer; he later became Director of the Programming Research Group at Oxford University. Prinz worked for the engineering firm of Ferranti Ltd, which built the Ferranti Mark I computer in collaboration with Manchester University. Oettinger worked at the Mathematical Laboratory at Cambridge University, home of the EDSAC computer. Strachey chose the board game of checkers (or draughts) as the domain for his experiment in machine intelligence. Strachey initially coded his checkers program in May 1. Turing's Automatic Computing Engine at the National Physical Laboratory. This version of the program did not run successfully; Strachey. In addition, Strachey was dissatisfied with the method employed in the program for evaluating board positions. He wrote an improved version for the Ferranti Mark I at Manchester (with Turing's encouragement and utilising the latter's recently completed Programmers' Handbook for the Ferranti computer). By the summer of 1. Strachey reported, . Early AI Programs. The first working AI programs were written in the UK by Christopher Strachey, Dietrich Prinz, and Anthony Oettinger. Strachey was at the time a. Airline chicken Airline chicken can be several things, depending upon who you talk to. It can be a fancy cut, a special presentation, or a negative appelation. In just 300 years, Christianity grew from a small Jewish sect in Galilee to become the dominant religion of the Roman Empire. How can we explain this? It was for solving simple problems of the mate- in- two variety. The program would examine every possible move until a solution was found. On average several thousand moves had to be examined in the course of solving a problem, and the program was considerably slower than a human player. Turing started to program his Turochamp chess- player on the Ferranti Mark I but never completed the task. Unlike Prinz's program, the Turochamp could play a complete game and operated not by exhaustive search but under the guidance of rule- of- thumb principles devised by Turing. Machine learning. Oettinger was considerably influenced by Turing's views on machine learning. The program ran on the EDSAC. Shopper's simulated world was a mall of eight shops. When sent out to purchase an item Shopper would if necessary search for it, visiting shops at random until the item was found. While searching, Shopper would memorise a few of the items stocked in each shop visited (just as a human shopper would). Next time Shopper was sent out for the same item, or for some other item that it had already located, it would go to the right shop straight away. As previously mentioned, this simple form of learning is called . Learning involving generalisation leaves the learner able to perform better in situations not previously encountered. Samuel took over the essentials of Strachey's program (which Strachey had publicised at a computing conference in Canada in 1. In 1. 95. 5 he added features that enabled the program to learn from experience, and therefore improve its play. Samuel included mechanisms for both rote learning and generalisation. The program soon learned enough to outplay its creator. Successive enhancements that Samuel made to the learning apparatus eventually led to the program winning a game against a former Connecticut checkers champion in 1. To speed up learning, Samuel would set up two copies of the program, Alpha and Beta, on the same computer, and leave them to play game after game with each other. The program used heuristics to rank moves and board positions (. The learning procedure consisted in the computer making small numerical changes to Alpha's ranking procedure, leaving Beta's unchanged, and then comparing Alpha's and Beta's performance over a few games. If Alpha played worse than Beta, these changes to the ranking procedure were discarded, but if Alpha played better than Beta then Beta's ranking procedure was replaced with Alpha's. As in biological evolution, the fitter survived, and over many such cycles of mutation and selection the program's skill would increase. Holland's work is principally responsible for the current intense interest in GAs. GAs employ methods analogous to the processes of natural evolution in order to produce successive generations of software entities that are increasingly fit for their intended purpose. The concept in fact goes back to Turing's manifesto of 1. The use of GAs is burgeoning in AI and elsewhere. In one recent application, a GA- based system and a witness to a crime cooperate to generate on- screen faces that become closer and closer to the recollected face of the criminal. Reasoning and problem- solving. The ability to reason logically is an important aspect of intelligence and has always been a major focus of AI research. In his 1. 94. 8 manifesto, Turing emphasised that once a computer can prove logical theorems it will be able to search intelligently for solutions to problems. Clifford Shaw of the RAND Corporation at Santa Monica and Herbert Simon of the Carnegie Institute of Technology (now Carnegie- Mellon University). The program was designed to prove theorems from the famous logical work Principia Mathematica by Alfred North Whitehead and Bertrand Russell. In the case of one theorem, the proof devised by the program was more elegant than the proof given by Whitehead and Russell. The Logic Theorist, as the program became known, was the major exhibit at a conference organised in 1. Dartmouth College, New Hampshire, by John Mc. Carthy, who subsequently became one of the most influential figures in AI. The title of the conference was . This was the first use of the term . Turing's original term . The first version of GPS ran in 1. GPS could solve an impressive variety of puzzles, for example the ? GPS would search for a solution in a trial- and- error fashion, under the guidance of heuristics supplied by the programmers. One criticism of GPS, and other programs that lack learning, is that the program's . Details of both were first published in 1. These programs gave an eerie semblance of conversing intelligently. Parry, written by Stanford University psychiatrist Kenneth Colby, simulated a human paranoiac. Parry's responses are capitalised in the following extract from a . Do you know any Italian crooks? I TRY TO AVOID THE UNDERWORLD. Psychiatrists who were asked to decide whether they were communicating with Parry or a human paranoiac were often unable to tell. Eliza, written by Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT, simulated a human therapist. In the following extract, Eliza . I am unhappy. DO YOU THINK COMING HERE WILL HELP YOU NOT TO BE UNHAPPYI need some help, that much seems certain. WHAT WOULD IT MEAN TO YOU IF YOU GOT SOME HELPNeither Parry nor Eliza can reasonably be described as intelligent. Parry's contributions to the conversation are . As the philosopher Ned Block says, systems like Parry are no more intelligent than is a juke box. Eliza, too, relies on canned sentences and simple programming tricks (such as editing and returning the remark that the human participant has just made).
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